Behaviourist and Constructivist theories of learning

Behaviourist and Constructivist theories of learning

The spectrum of learning theories consists of many approaches or ways of explaining how humans learn. A description of each of these theories will suffice in providing you with enough knowledge to critically examine the use of computer technology as a learning device. The resume of each theory will consist of:

• the associated names of the theory
• a description of the theory

The extremes of this learning theory spectrum are represented by respectively, the Behaviorist and Constructivist theories of learning. As theories trying to explain the same thing, they are bipolar based on their respective views of how knowledge is acquired and the intervention of tools of learning (teachers or instructors). As a context to better understand all of the theories of learning presented in this chapter, examine these two extremes first and then place the remaining theories onto the spectrum.

Theorists associated with Behaviourism:

J.B Watson

E. L Thorndike

Pavlov

B.F Skinner

Behaviourism labelled as a teaching approach is often referred to as directed instruction. As you compare this theory with the Constructivist view of learning, this label will become self-evident. Also in contrast to Constructivism, it has been labelled an objectivist theory of learning.

The concern or emphasis of Behaviourism is observable indicators that learning is taking place. Contrasting this view of learning is the emphasis of cognitive psychologists who equate learning with the mental processes of the mind. Behaviourists do not deny the existence of these mental processes. In fact, they acknowledge their existence as an unobservable indication of learning.

The focus of Behaviourism is on the conditioning of observable human behaviour. J. B Watson, the father of Behaviourism, defined learning as a sequence of stimulus and response actions in observable cause and effect relationships. The behaviourists’ example of classical conditioning demonstrates the process whereby a human learns to respond to a neutral stimulus in such a manner that would normally be associated with an unconditioned stimulus. The supporting example often cited with classical conditioning is the case of Pavlov's dog. The focus of Pavlov's experiment was the digestive process in animals. In conducting the experiment, Pavlov noticed that the dog would salivate (response), upon hearing the ringing of a bell. This occurred because the dog had learned to associate its unconditional stimuli (normally feeding), with the neutral stimuli of the bell ringing simultaneously with the feeding process. Watson, believed that the stimuli that humans receive may be generated internally (for example hunger), or externally (for example, a loud noise). B.F. Skinner expanded on the foundation of Behaviourism, established by Watson, and on the work of Edward Thorndike, by focussing on operant conditioning. According to Skinner, voluntary or automatic behaviour is either strengthened or weakened by the immediate presence of a reward or a punishment. "The learning principle behind operant conditioning is that new learning occurs as a result of positive reinforcement, and old patterns are abandoned as a result of negative reinforcement." In his book entitled, The Technology of Teaching, Skinner wrote:

“The application of operant conditioning to education is simple and direct. Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement under which students learn. They learn without teaching in their natural environments, but teachers arrange special contingencies which expedite learning, hastening the appearance of behaviour which would otherwise be acquired slowly or making sure of the appearance of behaviour which otherwise never occur”.

Skinner believed that more complex learning could be achieved by this process of contingencies and reinforcement "... through successive stages in the shaping process, the contingencies of reinforcement being changed progressively in the direction of the required behaviour."

·         Applying the theoretical principles of Behaviourism to learning environments, it is easy to recognize that we have many "behaviourist artefacts" in our learning world. A dissection of the traditional teaching approaches used for years would reveal the powerful influence that Behaviourists have had on learning. The concept of directed instruction, whereby a teacher is providing the knowledge to the students either directly or through the set up of "contingencies", is an excellent example of the Behaviourist model of learning. The use of exams to measure observable behaviour of learning, the use of rewards and punishments in our school systems, and the breaking down of the instruction process into "conditions of learning" (as developed by Robert Gagne), are all further examples of the Behaviourist influence.

·         The merits of Behaviourist learning theory and of their teaching practices are well documented.. Behavioural learning theory manifested itself in creating a systematic approach to teaching.

·         Robert Gagne and Leslie Briggs, in their book, Principles of Instructional Design, combined Behaviourist principles of learning with a cognitive theory of learning named Information-Processing. The focus of the latter theory in this combination was of the internal processing that occurred during a learning moment.

·         The design of instruction must be undertaken with suitable attention to the conditions under which learning occurs. With reference to the learner, learning conditions are both external and internal. These conditions are in turn dependent upon what is being learned. How can these basic ideas be used to design instruction? How can they be applied to the design of single lessons, of courses, and of entire systems of instructions?

Constructivism:

Constructivism is recognized as a unique learning theory in itself. It however, may be associated with cognitive psychology because as a theory of learning it focuses on a learner's ability to mentally construct meaning of their own environment and to create their own learning. As a teaching practice it is associated with different degrees of non-directed learning. The term constructivism is linked to Cognitive and Social Constructivism.

Theorists associated with Constructivism:

John Dewey

Lev Vygotsky

Jean Piaget

Jerome Bruner

Seymour Papert

Mitchell Resnick

Behaviourist learning theory had served its purpose and its approach and goals were becoming outdated according to Constructivists like Seymour Paper. Constructivist learning theory sought to improve on what Behaviourist learning theory had already established by focussing on the motivation and ability for humans to construct learning for themselves. It viewed Behaviourism as being too teacher centered and directed. Constructivists regarded the educational system as a process of matching skill objectives with test items. It was void of meaningful learning. They also saw the teaching process focus too much on individual work rather than on group work.

The final critique of Behaviourist learning theory from the Constructivist perspective helped define the core of Constructivism. To imply that knowledge is separate to the human mind and that it must be transferred to the learner in a teacher centered approach fundamentally was counter to the Constructivist theory of learning.

Constructivists believe that all humans have the ability to construct knowledge in their own minds through a process of discovery and problem-solving. The extent to which this process can take place naturally, without structure and teaching is the defining factor amongst those who advocate this learning theory.

Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, observed human development as progressive stages of cognitive development. His four stages, which commence at infancy and progress into adulthood, characterize the cognitive abilities necessary at each stage to construct meaning of one’s environment.

Seymour Papert, psychologist and contemporary critique of Behaviourist teaching methods, writes in his book, The Children's Machine:

“Thus, constructionism, my personal reconstruction of constructivism has as its main feature the fact that it looks more closely than other educational -isms at the idea of mental construction. It attaches special importance to the role of constructions in the world as a support for those in the head, thereby becoming less of a purely mentalist doctrine.”

As the inventor of LOGO, the programming tool for children, Papert too believed that children as learners have a natural curiosity to construct meaning of their world. The educational system as Papert saw it was too structured and it stifled this natural curiosity. The means by which children were being taught relegated them to a role of passive recipients of the teaching hence, they were not motivated to construct any learning for themselves. Learning according to Constructivists is a question of motivating an individual to attach new meaning to past cognitive experiences.

Papert's desire to have children become motivated learners, critical thinkers, problem-solvers and metacognitionists is to be achieved through educational reform that provides the learner with the necessary tools to participate and to take ownership of the learning process. According to Papert, the computer is the appropriate tool to achieve such desired educational reform.

These desired objectives of Papert and others who share the Constructivist view of learning are coming closer to reality as more people discover the power of computer technology. From Donald Tapscott's perspective, Papert's desired reality is happening now, as a paradigm shift to more interactive learning due to the exploitation of the digital media is taking place in our learning institutions.

Tapscott cites eight shifts in learning today:

 

• From linear to hypermedia.
• From instruction to construction and discovery.
• From teacher-centered to learner-centered education.
• From absorbing material to learning how to navigate and how to learn.
• From school to lifelong learning.
• From one-size-fits-all to customized learning.
• From learning as torture as learning as fun.
• From the teacher as transmitter to the teacher as facilitator.

Behaviorism                                                                                     Constructivism 

·         Directed Instruction                                                                             Non-directed Instruction

·         Objectivist                                                                                          Constructivist

·         Teacher-centered                                                                                Learner-centered

·         Behavioral observations                                                                     Cognitive operations

·         Focus on the individual                                                                      Group work is emphasized

·         More focussed on one approach                                                        More holistic in approach

·         Fundamentally, Constructivism is a cognitive learning theory because of its focus on the mental processes that construct meaning. Other learning theories equated with cognitive psychology are: Information-Processing theory, Scaffolding theory (associated with the Russian philosopher Lev Vygotsky) and Brain-based learning theory (associated with neuroscientists such as Marian Diamond and Robert Sylwester and educator Susan Kovalik).

·         Information-Processing theory regards human learning as being analogous to a computer and its ability to store memory. As humans we process information initially with our senses. This information is either processed into our short term memory or it is lost. If this information is used and practised it is only then put into long term memory.

·         Lev Vygotsky thought that our cognitive development was directly related to our social development. The culture we live in influences our social and cognitive development according to Vygotsky. He further recognized the differences of how the world is seen by children and by adults. Vygotsky labelled this difference in cognitive ability as the "zone of proximal development". The job of educators was to identify this zone and to find out where the child was situated in this zone and build upon their specific level through a "scaffolding" process. Building from what the learner knows is in essence, anchoring the learning on past experience. Such anchoring is fundamental to Constructivist theory of learning. Computer technology is viewed by Seymour Papert as an excellent means to anchoring learning to meaningful experiences.

·         The complexity of understanding how humans learn is reflective of our complexity as biological, social and cognitive animals. Many theories exist, all focussing on different aspects of our make-up as humans. Each theory is an attempt to explain how we learn, act and behave: Sigmund Freud focussed on our sub-conscious, Skinner on our observable behavior, cognitive psychologists on our mental processes, humanistic psychology on our social and interpersonal development.

Implications for Learning Theory

If the apparent symmetry between contemporary brain-based learning theories and constructivism is accurate, then basic guiding principles of constructivism should be used in designing learning environments. These principles include:

1. Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues around which students are actively trying to construct meaning.
2. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. Parts must be understood in the context of wholes. Therefore the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated facts.
3. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to understand the world, and the assumptions that support those models.
4. The purpose of learning is to construct one's own meaning, not to have the "right" answers by repeating someone else's meaning. Learning is inherently inter-disciplinary, and the only valuable assessment of learning is assessment that is part of the learning process and that provides students with information on the quality of their learning.

                                   Behaviorism and Constructivism

Behaviorism and constructivism continue to be relevant in today’s world of online education, Implications for online learning need to be determined so that successful practical applications can be identified and implemented to positively affect learning. The use of technology in online courses has slowly shifted the theoretical balance from behaviorism to constructivism due to the increased use of educational technologies. More often instructors are choosing to utilize a combination of these two learning styles in an effort to best meet the learning styles for all students. In summary, there appears to be a theoretical shift more often than not from behaviorist learning practices to constructivist learning practices related to the increased use of educational technologies, and stemming from the fact that many available technologies support constructivist learning platforms. However, there are still many learning practices that focus on more behaviorist learning techniques, and there are arguments in support of their validity as well. The current learning technique with the most support is more of a blending of the two theories, because they can be used in conjunction while utilizing educational technology. There are many factors to be considered when deciding which theory is more valid in certain practices, including curriculum, assessment, and resources. Though there seems to be a shift toward more constructivist learning practices or a blending of the two learning theories, the road ahead in determining precisely what should be done by educators still remains vague.

                                                         There are many important factors involved along with challenges to both theories. However, it is possible that these trends may be analyzed but put into practice in a variety of ways without any standardization. There are so many factors involved that this debate seems to fall to the choice of individual educators, and may, in fact, continue along this path as educators look toward the future of educational technology integration.

Comparisons Among Learning Theories	Behaviorism	Cognitivism	Constructivism
List of Key Theorists	B.F. Skinner Ivan Pavlov Edward Thorndike John B. Watson	Jean Piaget Robert Gagne Lev Vygotsky	John Dewey Jerome Bruner Merrill Lev Vygotsky Seymour Papert
Role of Learners	·    Learners are basically passive, just responding to stimuli	·    Learners process, store, and retrieve information for later use—creating associations and creating a knowledge set useful for living. The learner uses the information processing approach to transfer and assimilate new information.	·    Learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge, social interactions, and motivation affect the construction.
Role of Teachers	·Instructor designs the learning environment. ·Instructor shapes child’s behavior by positive/ negative reinforcement ·Teacher presents the information and then students demonstrate that they understand the material.  Students are assessed primarily through tests.	·   Instructor manages problem solving and structured search activities, especially with group learning strategies. ·   Instructor provides opportunities for students to connect new information to schema.	· Educators focus on making connections between facts and fostering new understanding in students. Instructors tailor their teaching strategies to student responses and encourage students to analyze, interpret, and predict information. Teachers also rely heavily on open-ended questions and promote extensive dialogue among students. · Constructivism calls for the elimination of a standardized curriculum. Instead, it promotes using curricula customized to the students' prior knowledge. Also, it emphasizes hands-on problem solving.
Possible Learning Activities	·   Instructional cues to elicit correct response ·   Practice paired with target stimuli ·   Reinforcement for correct responses ·   Building fluency (get responses closer and closer to correct response) ·   Multiple opportunities/trials (Drill and practice) ·   Discrimination (recalling facts) ·   Generalization (defining and illustrating concepts) ·   Associations (applying explanations) ·   Chaining (automatically performing a specified procedure)	·   Explanations ·   Demonstrations ·   Illustrative examples ·   Repetition ·   Concept Mapping ·   Advanced Organizers	·   Modeling ·   Collaborative Learning ·   Coaching ·   Scaffolding ·   Problem-Based Learning ·   Authentic Learning ·   Anchored Instruction ·   Object-based Learning
Learning and Instructional Design	One of the key areas where behaviorism impacts instructional design is in the development of instructional objectives. Computer-assisted instruction was very much drill-and-practice - controlled by the program developer rather than the learner. Little branching of instruction was implemented. The systems approach developed out of the 1950s and 1960s focus on language laboratories, teaching machines, programmed instruction, multimedia presentations and the use of the computer in instruction. Most systems approaches are similar to computer flow charts with steps that the designer moves through during the development of instruction. Implications When designing from a behaviorist/cognitivist stance, the designer analyzes the situation and sets a goal. Individual tasks are broken down and learning objectives are developed. Evaluation consists of determining whether the criterion for the objectives has been met. In this approach the designer decides what is important for the learner to know and attempts to transfer that knowledge to the learner. The learning package is somewhat of a closed system, since although it may allow for some branching and remediation, the learner is still confined to the designer's "world".	Computers process information in a similar fashion to how cognitive scientists believe humans process information: receive, store and retrieve. This analogy makes the possibility of programming a computer to "think" like a person conceivable, i.e. artificial intelligence. Artificial intelligence involves the computer working to supply appropriate responses to student input from the computer's data base. A trouble-shooting programs are examples of these programs. Implications When designing from a behaviorist/cognitivist stance, the designer analyzes the situation and sets a goal. Individual tasks are broken down and learning objectives are developed. Evaluation consists of determining whether the criterion for the objectives has been met. In this approach the designer decides what is important for the learner to know and attempts to transfer that knowledge to the learner. The learning package is somewhat of a closed system, since although it may allow for some branching and remediation, the learner is still confined to the designer's "attempts to transfer that knowledge to the learner. The learning package is somewhat of a closed system, since although it may allow for some branching and remediation, the learner is still confined to the designer's "world".	Instructional design considerations within a framework of constructivism begin with taking into account the learner’s prior knowledge, understandings, and interests. Constructivism is not compatible with the present systems approach to instructional design. Jonassen points out that the difference between constructivist and objectivist, (behavioral and cognitive), instructional design is that objective design has a predetermined outcome and intervenes in the learning process to map a predetermined concept of reality into the learner's mind, while constructivism maintains that because learning outcomes are not always predictable, instruction should foster, not control, learning. With this in mind, Jonassen looks at the commonalties among constructivist approaches to learning to suggest a "model" for designing constructivist learning environments. One of the most useful tools for the constructivist designer is hypertext and hypermedia because it allows for a branched design rather than a linear format of instruction.  Most literature on constructivist design suggests that learners should not simply be let loose in a hypermedia or hypertext environment, but that a mix of old and new (objective and constructive) instruction/learning design be implemented. Reigeluth and Chung suggest a prescriptive system which advocates increased learner control. In this method, students have some background knowledge and have been given some instruction in developing their own metacognitive strategies and have some way to return along the path they have taken, should they become "lost". To design from a constructivist approach requires that the designer produces a product that is much more facilitative in nature than prescriptive. The content is not prespecified, direction is determined by the learner, and assessment is much more subjective because it does not depend on specific quantitative criteria, but rather the process and self-evaluation of the learner. The standard pencil-and-paper tests of mastery learning are not used in constructive design; instead, evaluation is based on notes, early drafts, final products, and journals.